Protected areas were first established in the 1700's by a Dutch Colonial officer concerned about 

the loss of natural habitats on Java, a region facing rapid population growth (Supriana and 

Sukandar 1996).  Long before this historical event, several sultanates had set aside large areas 

designated primarily as hunting reserves.  Some societies had also set aside locally respected 

and managed protected areas, sometimes as  sacred forests , as part of their cultural traditions.  

Some locally respected and managed  sacred forests  still exist today.  However, the first official 

government reserve was not established until 1889 at Cibodas, and in 1916 the first 

conservation legislation was passed as the Nature Reserve Act.  Shortly thereafter in 1919, the 

first strict nature reserve (cagar alam) was established.  Strict nature reserves were initially 

intended as areas deemed in need of protection and excluded from any utilization whatsoever.  

However, since the 1980's, a broader classification system has been applied (IUCN 1994), 

involving management approaches ranging from total exclusivity to community or commercial 

use of resources inside protected areas.  The first national parks were established in 1980 

(including Gunung Leuser, Gunung Gede Pangrango, Baluran and Komodo), and the first 

national marine park (Kepulauan Seribu) was established in 1982.  

Legally, the management of Indonesia's conservation area system is established within Act No. 

5 of 1990,  Conservation of Living Resources and Their Ecosystems , and a number of 

supporting regulations and guidelines for operational matters (e.g., national park planning, 

species conservation).  Institutionally, management responsibility lies with the Directorate 

General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA, now known as PKA or 

Perlindungan dan Konservasi Alam) within the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops (MoFr).  

During NRMP and prior to Ministerial restructuring, PHPA was one of four Directorate Generals 

within MoFr.  PHPA was comprised of central offices located in Bogor and Jakarta, 8 regional 

(Balai) representative offices, 28 provincial (Sub Balai) offices and 12 national park 

management units (Unit Pelaksana Teknis, or UPT) with a total staff of about 4,860 in 1996.  An 

additional 22 national parks were awaiting staff allocation for implementation of UPT 

management status.  Based on current standards, the UPT's will require approximately 2,200 

additional staff (MacAndrews and Saunders 1997). 

While the extent of Indonesia's conservation area system is impressive, adequate management 

remains a formidable challenge.  Many management tools currently being used have proved 

ineffective for addressing threats to conservation values.  There is a need to recognize these 

weaknesses and develop appropriate corrective responses, including:  

Shifting management planning from a standardized, inflexible blueprint approach to 

more locally adaptive, site specific and on going management approaches  

Initiating institutional reforms that strengthen the park managers' capacities to 

participate in regional planning and development 

Developing park management around a participatory multi stakeholder process that 

identifies and supports the rights and responsibilities of the various stakeholders. 

The NRMP experience offers insights into some of the opportunities and constraints of national 

park management in Indonesia.  The GOI requested NRMP assistance for development of two 

management plans:  Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park (mostly montane tropical forest in 

West and Central Kalimantan) and Bunaken National Park (comprised of island, coastal and 

predominately marine environments in North Sulawesi).  NRMP focused on planning for these 

57