Barrier Reef in Australia), Bunaken represents some of the greatest marine biodiversity in the 

world.  Marine biologists estimate that within this 80,000 hectare park there are more than 2,500 

species of fish representing 175 families.  The largest number of species occur on the coral 

reefs, and the deep waters between reefs provide suitable habitat for pelagic fish and mammal 

species, including marlin, tuna, sharks, and whales.  Beyond its important coral reefs, the park 

contains approximately 20 percent of the province's mangrove habitat, with 28 major mangrove 

species identified.  Bunaken National Park also provides habitat to several endangered species, 

notably the dugong, green and hawksbill turtles, all seven species of giant clams found in 

Indonesia, several other mollusc species, and the recently discovered primitive Coelocanthe fish 

(previously only known from the Comoro Islands near Madagascar). 

Participatory Planning and Management 

A cohesive Bunaken National Park community does not exist.  The various stakeholders come 

from different backgrounds, sharing and competing economically.  The discourse within this 

group is more hierarchical and top down than it is democratic.  Antagonism among stakeholders 

is fueled by conflicting economic interests and is embedded in conflicting cultures.  The 

dominant political culture tends to be the Minahasa, and the dominant economic culture tends to 

be Indonesian Chinese.  Both groups are predominately Christian with strong terrestrial 

orientations.  By contrast, people living in and adjacent to the marine park are more diverse; 

farmers tend to be Christian and fishers tend to be Muslim.  Resources use is opportunistic; 

families use low capital systems to meet subsistence and market demands.   

Park stakeholders competed for a range of resources (e.g., dive sites, fish and other marine 

resources, mangroves, and tourism development sites).  In reality, there was little sense of 

community among Bunaken's diverse group of stakeholders, which included: 

Various government agencies at the national, provincial and local level  

Private sector investors and traders 

People living in settlements in and around the park 

People economically linked to resources (products or services) extracted from the 

park. 

Bunaken's status as a national park does not provide a common meeting ground, but rather 

incites a power struggle among stakeholders over resources use rights.  The role of 

SBKSDA/PHPA as an important stakeholder in park management was never clear.  Their 

insignificant involvement in the planning process was seen by NRMP as a serious constraint to 

management planning.  As stakeholders compete to control resources, the ambiguity presented 

by national park status may be more destructive than protective of Bunaken's resources base.  

Those losing or concerned about losing control of resources rights and responsibilities sacrifice 

intangible long term benefits (e.g., conservation, sustainable resources use, stewardship) for 

rapid, often destructive, short term gains.  

As such, the designation of Bunaken as a national park incites further division within the 

community, and has lead to power struggles for resources rights.  Those who perceive a loss of 

rights or experience reduced access then lose a sense of responsibility over these resources.  

They have rapidly increased their exploitation rates as a result of this perception.  Given an 

uncertain future, those who exploit for short term gains would appear to be making a prudent 

decision. 

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